International Journal of STD & AIDS > Volume 20, Number 5 > Pp. 300-309

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Guideline

IUSTI: 2008 European Guidelines on the Management of Syphilis

P French (Chair) FRCP , M Gomberg MD, M Janier MD PhD, B Schmidt MD, P van Voorst Vader MD and H Young MD

The Mortimer Market Centre, Camden Primary Care Trust and University College London, Mortimer Market, London WC1E 6JB, UK

Correspondence to: Dr Patrick French Email: Patrick.French{at}Camdenpct.nhs.uk

Key Words: syphilis • guideline • Europe • treatment • management

	INTRODUCTION

Top INTRODUCTION CASE FINDING DIAGNOSIS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX REFERENCES

 
Syphilis is classified as acquired or congenital. Acquired syphilis is divided into early- and late-syphilis. Early syphilis: primary, secondary and early latent infection. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) defines early syphilis as syphilis acquired <1 year previously and the World Health Organization (WHO) defines early syphilis as syphilis acquired <2 years previously.^1,2 Late syphilis: late latent and tertiary syphilis (gummatous, cardiovascular and neurosyphilis). The ECDC defines late syphilis as syphilis acquired >1 year previously, the WHO as syphilis acquired >2 years previously.^1,2 Congenital syphilis is divided into early (first 2 years of life) and late, including stigmata of congenital syphilis.

This guideline is an update of the European IUSTI Syphilis Guideline 2001.³ Six scientific background articles linked with this update are also available.^4–9

	CASE FINDING

Top INTRODUCTION CASE FINDING DIAGNOSIS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX REFERENCES

 
Routine tests for syphilis should be taken in all pregnant women or those people who are donating blood, and the following groups at higher risk of syphilis: all patients who are newly diagnosed with sexually transmitted infection (STI); persons with HIV; patients with hepatitis B; patients with hepatitis C; patients suspected of early neurosyphilis (i.e. unexplained sudden visual loss [uveitis], unexplained sudden deafness [otitis] or meningitis); patients who engage in sexual behaviour that puts them at risk (e.g. men who have sex with men, sex workers and all those individuals at higher risk of acquiring STIs).

	DIAGNOSIS

Top INTRODUCTION CASE FINDING DIAGNOSIS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX REFERENCES

 
A. Clinical features and stage characteristics

Incubation period: 10–90 (usually 14–21 days) days before the ulcer (chancre) of primary syphilis develops. Secondary syphilis develops three to six weeks after the appearance of chancre.

Primary syphilis: an ulcer (chancre), usually with regional lymphadenopathy. The ulcer is usually single, painless and indurated with a clean base discharging clear serum and it is usually located in the anogenital region. Occasionally, it may be atypical, more so in HIV-infected patients: multiple, painful, purulent, destructive, extragenital (extragenital sites include the mouth and lips).^10,11 It may also cause the syphilitic balanitis of Follman.^12,13 An anogenital ulcer should be considered as being caused by syphilis unless proven otherwise.

Secondary syphilis: multisystem involvement due to bacteraemia, which may recur into the second year after infection – generalized non-itchy polymorphic rash often affecting the palms and soles, condylomata lata, mucocutaneous lesions, generalized lymphadenopathy; less commonly, patchy alopecia, uveitis,^14,15 otitis,^16,17 meningitis, cranial nerve palsies, hepatitis,¹⁸ splenomegaly, periostitis and glomerulonephritis. The rash may be itchy, particularly in dark-skinned patients.¹⁹ Uveitis, otitis, meningitis (i.e. early neurosyphilis) and other non-mucocutaneous symptoms may be the only symptoms of early syphilis.^20,21

Latent syphilis, early and late: positive serological tests for syphilis with no clinical evidence of treponemal infection. This is classified (ECDC definition) as early latent if the infection was acquired <1 year previously and as late latent if the infection was acquired >1 year previously.¹ Amplified definition of early latent syphilis: individuals who have had negative syphilis serology within one year of a syphilis diagnosis and who have no symptoms or signs of HIV disease, or individuals with positive syphilis serology who have unequivocal evidence that they have acquired syphilis in the previous 12 months.

Late syphilis:

• Gummatous syphilis:²² typical nodules/plaques or ulcers;
  
• Neurosyphilis: ocular, auricular, meningovascular, parenchymatous (general paresis, tabes dorsalis); asymptomatic (abnormal cerebrospinal fluid [CSF]);
  
• Cardiovascular syphilis: aortitis – asymptomatic, angina, aortic regurgitation, stenosis of coronary ostia, aortic aneurysm (mainly thoracic).
  

Epidemiological monitoring of infectious syphilis: all patients with primary, secondary and early latent syphilis should be reported to their National Syphilis Surveillance System and these national programmes should report to the European Surveillance of STI (ESSTI) network of the ECDC, if they are within the European Union.¹

B. Laboratory

Demonstration of Treponema pallidum from lesions or infected lymph nodes in early syphilis:⁴

• Darkfield microscopy;²³
  
• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)^24,25 – preferred method for oral and other lesions where contamination with commensal treponemes is likely. Occasionally PCR may also be a useful adjunct in the diagnosis of later stages, especially tertiary syphilis²⁶ and also in congenital syphilis;²⁷
  
• A direct fluorescent monoclonal antibody test may also be used. However, access to suitable reagents limits the use of this test.
  

Serological tests for syphilis:^28–32

None of the serological tests for syphilis differentiate between venereal syphilis (caused by T. pallidum subspecies pallidum) and the other treponematoses – yaws (T. pallidum subspecies pertenue), endemic syphilis (T. pallidum subspecies endemicum) and pinta (T. pallidum subspecies carateum). A person with positive syphilis serology from a country with endemic treponematoses should be investigated and treated as for syphilis as a precautionary measure, unless previously adequately treated for syphilis.

• Non-treponemal antigen tests (also referred to as cardiolipin antigen, lipoidal or reagin tests): Rapid plasma reagin test (RPR) and the venereal disease research laboratory (VDRL) carbon antigen test are the most widely used of these tests. There are variants of these original tests, such as the nowadays rarely used VDRL microflocculation test;
  
• Treponemal antigen tests (these tests use antigen from Nichol's strain of T. pallidum subspecies pallidum, derived directly or produced as a bacterial recombinant antigen): T. pallidum haemagglutination assay (TPHA) – sometimes referred to as the micro-haemagglutination assay for T. pallidum (MHA-TP), T. pallidum particle agglutination test (TPPA), fluorescent Treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-abs test), Treponemal enzyme immunoassay (EIA) – most of these tests now use recombinant antigen and detect total anti-treponemal antibody (IgG and IgM). The newer chemiluminescence immunoassays are likely to have the same role as screening tests in the current EIA tests;^33,34
  
• Specific anti-T. pallidum IgM antibody tests: 19S-IgM-FTA-abs test, IgM-immunoblot for T. pallidum, specific anti-T. pallidum IgM EIA;
  
• Specific anti-T. pallidum IgG antibody tests: IgG-immunoblot, which discerns false-positive from true-postive treponemal tests.
  

Primary screening test:^30–32,35

• A treponemal antigen test EIA or TPPA (preferred to TPHA) is recommended as a single screening test;
  
• Request a specific anti-treponemal IgM test if primary syphilis is suspected and/or perform a repeat test one to two weeks later;³⁶
  
• Rapid treponemal tests might be useful in some circumstances provided positive results are confirmed serologically;^2,4
  
• The RPR/VDRL is not recommended as a primary screening test;^4,36–38 It may be used for the rapid detection of symptomatic early syphilis in at-risk patients (supplemented with a standard recommended screening test). In these circumstances diluted as well as undiluted serum should be tested to prevent a false-negative test due to the prozone phenomenon.
  

Confirmatory test if any primary screening test is positive:^30–32,35

• A treponemal antigen test of a different type from the primary screening test is recommended: TPPA (TPHA) if EIA is used for screening, EIA if TPPA (TPHA) is used for screening. If positive, the TPPA (TPHA) may be quantified if preferred;
  
• The IgG immunoblot using recombinant antigen is recommended as a supplementary confirmatory test, when a positive EIA screening test is not confirmed by the TPPA (TPHA) test or a positive TPPA (TPHA) screening test is not confirmed by the EIA test.^4,30–32,39
  

The FTA-abs is not recommended as a standard confirmatory test.⁴⁰ However, it could be used as a supplementary test in certain circumstances, e.g. in highly specialized laboratories with a large volume of confirmatory testing, where the quality of reagents and reproducibility of the test can be assured.

• Always repeat positive tests on a second blood specimen to confirm the results.
  

Tests for serological activity of syphilis:

• A quantitative RPR/VDRL is recommended when the confirmatory test is positive. A titre 32 is rarely seen after adequate treatment.³⁹ A titre <32 or a negative VDRL/RPR test does not exclude active infection although active treponemal disease with a negative RPR/VDRL is unusual, more so in early syphilis than in late syphilis. A specific anti-treponemal IgM EIA is recommended when the confirmatory test is positive and an RPR/VDRL is negative in a patient with clinical signs suggestive of syphilis. In this situation, a positive anti-treponemal IgM test indicates active infection. A negative anti-treponemal IgM test does not exclude active infection, particularly in late infection.
  

Tests for monitoring the effect of treatment:

• A quantitative RPR/VDRL test is recommended for monitoring the serological response to treatment. The titre determined on a blood specimen taken on the day of treatment gives the baseline for measuring a decrease in titre;
  
• A specific anti-treponemal IgM EIA may be helpful in monitoring the serological response to treatment in RPR/VDRL negative primary syphilis.
  

B1. Laboratory: false-negative syphilis serology

• False-negative^28,29 treponemal screening tests may occur during the two- to four-week window period between acquiring infection and production of sufficient antibody (IgM and/or IgG) to result in a positive test;
  
• A false-negative RPR/VDRL test may occur in secondary syphilis and early latent and early neurosyphilis due to the prozone phenomenon from using undiluted serum;
  
• False-negative RPR/VDRL tests may occur in late-stage syphilis,³⁹ probably due to a gradual reduction of cardiolipin antibody over time. Sensitivity declines to 60–75%;
  
• Temporary negative serological tests (reactive on subsequent testing) have occasionally been reported in secondary syphilis.
  

B2. Laboratory: false-positive syphilis serology

• Occasional false-positive reactions may occur with any of the serological tests for syphilis;^28,29
  
• In general, false-positive reactions are more likely to be seen in autoimmune disease, HIV infection, pregnancy and intravenous (i.v.) drug abuse;
  
• The FTA-abs test is particularly prone to false-positive reactions in patients with autoimmune disease;
  
• The classical biological false-positive (BFP) reaction (an antibody response to cardiolipin that is not due to syphilis) is much less of a problem now that treponemal antigen tests are recommended for screening. Traditionally, BFP reactions were classified as acute (<6 months) and chronic (>6 months). Acute BFP may be seen in pregnancy, postimmunization, recent myocardial infarction and in many febrile infective illnesses. Chronic BFP may be seen in injecting drug users, autoimmune diseases, leprosy, chronic liver pathology (chronic hepatitis B, chronic hepatitis C, etc.) and old age;
  
• In the absence of a known history of syphilis or a positive anti-treponemal IgM test, persistent or transient reactivity in a single treponemal antigen test should be considered as a false-positive serological test result;
  
• Testing for specific anti-T. pallidum antibodies by IgG-immunoblot can differentiate a false-positive from a true-positive treponemal antibody test.
  

C. Laboratory tests to confirm or exclude neurosyphilis

• Lumbar puncture^8,40,41 for examination of CSF is indicated in patients with positive syphilis serology and:^8,42
  1. clinical neurological symptoms possibly caused by neurosyphilis;
     
  2. clinical ocular symptoms possibly caused by ocular syphilis*;
     
  3. clinical auricular (otological) symptoms possibly caused by syphilitic otitis*;
     
  4. concomitant HIV infection, especially if CD4 count is <350/µL and/or the serum RPR test titre >1:32**;^7,35,43–45
     
  
  

*Denotes not obligatory in the absence of (other) clinical neurological symptoms, provided treatment for neurosyphilis such as i.v. penicillin is given.^14,16

**Denotes not obligatory, but may be indicated in late latent syphilis or syphilis of unknown duration or in treatment failure.^8,44

Criteria for the diagnosis of neurosyphilis in CSF
TPHA/TPPA/MHA-P and/or FTA-abs test positive.

and

Increased number of mononuclear cells (>5–10/mm³).^8,40,41,46

or

Positive VDRL/RPR

• No single test or clinical feature can diagnose neurosyphilis and a diagnosis is usually made on a combination of clinical presentation and the laboratory tests outlined above.
  
• Other considerations:
  1. The number of mononuclear cells in CSF can be normal in neurosyphilis, especially in parenchymatous neurosyphilis (tabes dorsalis, general paresis);^31,32
     
  2. The VDRL test in CSF can be negative in neurosyphilis;^40,41,47,48
     
  3. A positive TPHA/MHA-TP/TPPA or FTA-absorption test in CSF by itself does not confirm the diagnosis neurosyphilis, but a negative treponemal CSF test excludes neurosyphilis;⁴¹
     
  4. The criteria outlined above have not generally been validated in HIV seropositive patients;
     
  5. A TPHA index as defined by Luger and Schmidt in 2000 (TPHA index Vienna 2000) is used by some specialists as a laboratory criterion to diagnose neurosyphilis and has been noted to have a higher sensitivity than the CSF-VDRL test;^8,41
     
  6. The TPHA index Vienna 2000 (CSF TPHA/albumin quotient [CSF albumin x 10³/serum albumin]) takes into account impairment of the blood-brain barrier and is more sensitive than the CSF VDRL test while maintaining high specificity;^8,41
     
  7. A TPHA index Vienna 2000 of >70 and a CSF TPHA titre >320 are the most reliable in supporting a diagnosis of neurosyphilis;^8,41
     
  8. Neurosyphilis is unlikely when the CSF TPHA titre is <320 or serum TPHA titre<640.⁸
     
  9. The IgG index is an indicator for intrathecal IgG-antibody production, which is more informative than the CSF protein level; if positive, the TPHA index Vienna 2000 may demonstrate that the IgG-antibody production is in fact directed against T. pallidum.⁸
     
  
  

D. Screening test to exclude asymptomatic cardiovascular syphilis

• Chest radiograph
  

E. Investigation for ocular syphilis

Any patient with unexplained sudden visual loss should be screened for syphilis. Uveitis may be the only symptom of early neuro syphilis and can be cured without permanent visual loss if treated adequately without delay. Ocular assessment (slit lamp) may be helpful to differentiate between acquired or congenital ocular syphilis (interstitial keratitis) in cases of latent infection of uncertain duration.

F. Investigation for auricular syphilis

Any patient with unexplained sudden hearing loss should be screened for syphilis. Otitis may be the only symptom of early neurosyphilis.

	MANAGEMENT

Top INTRODUCTION CASE FINDING DIAGNOSIS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX REFERENCES

 
Individuals with syphilis are at higher risk of acquiring other infectious diseases. All individual syphilis patients should be tested for HIV and HCV and evaluated for hepatitis B and if necessary vaccinated. All individuals with syphilis should have a full STI assessment.^{42,44,49–55}

General remarks

• A treponemocidal level of antimicrobials should be achieved in the serum, and in the CSF in the case of neurosyphilis;^5,53 A penicillin level of >0.018 mg/L is considered treponemocidal, but is substantially lower than the maximally effective in vitro level of concentration, which is far higher (0.36 mg/L);^49,53,56
  
• Duration of treponemocidal level of antimicrobial should be at least 7–10 days to cover a number of division times (30–33 hours) of treponemes in early syphilis.⁵³ Longer duration of treatment is needed as the duration of infection increases (more relapses were seen in later stages after short courses of treatment), possibly because of more slowly dividing treponemes in late syphilis. Treponemes have been shown to persist despite apparently successful treatment.⁵⁰ The significance of this finding, if any, is unknown;
  
• Long-acting benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units provides a treponemocidal penicillinaemia for up to three to four weeks (21–23 days).^56,57 With daily parenteral treatment with procaine penicillin, a ‘safety margin’ is provided by giving courses lasting 10–14 days in early syphilis and 10–21 days in late syphilis. However, well controlled clinical data are lacking on the optimal dose, duration of treatment and long-term efficacy of antimicrobials, even of penicillin, which has been used most extensively;
  
• The recommendations for late syphilis are based mainly on laboratory considerations, biological plausibility, practical considerations, expert opinion, case studies and past clinical experience;⁴⁹
  
• Parenteral rather than oral penicillin treatment has generally been the treatment of choice because parenteral therapy is supervised with guaranteed bioavailability. Oral fenoxymethylpenicilline is a possible option, although there is more evidence for the use of amoxicillin in this situation.⁵⁸ Amoxicillin given orally in combination with probenecid appears to be effective and results in treponemocidal CSF levels;^59,60
  
• Non-penicillin antibiotics that have been evaluated are tetracyclines, including doxycycline, which is the preferred tetracycline with penetration into the CSF^49,50,61,62 and erythromycin, all taken orally. Erythromycin is least effective and does not penetrate the blood-brain or placental barriers well.⁵⁰ Newer anti-treponemals include i.m. or i.v. ceftriaxone.^{5,35,53,63,64} Ceftriaxone has good CSF penetration, however it requires multiple injections and offers few advantages to single dose Benzathine penicillin.^7,65 Like oral doxycycline daily intramuscular (i.m.) ceftriaxone may be an alternative for early syphilis patients with penicillin allergy, although penicillin anaphylaxis is considered an absolute contraindication;^7,35,53,66
  
• Azithromycin shows good anti-treponemocidal activity in animal studies and early open studies showed it appears effective in early syphilis.^49,67–69 These findings have been confirmed by a recent randomized controlled study.⁷⁰ However, intrinsic resistance to azithromycin has been described in some T. pallidum strains;^35,71–73
  
• The host immune response is important as 60% of untreated patients go through life without developing late complications.⁷⁴ Asymptomatic CSF involvement is common in symptomatic neurosyphilis.^75,76 Although both parenteral Benzathine penicillin and standard regimens of parenteral procaine penicillin do not achieve treponemocidal CSF levels,^42,49,77,78 the prevalence of late syphilis, including neurosyphilis, remains low,⁴⁶ indicating that treatment is effective and suggesting that host immune responses in early syphilis play an essential part;
  
• Benzathine penicillin is widely used because of efficacy and ease of treatment. Replacing half of the solvent by lidocaine 1% solution may reduce the pain associated with injection⁷⁹ and may improve compliance. Compliance with daily i.m. injections with procaine penicillin has been good in the UK.⁸⁰ The control of syphilis over the past 50 years has been excellent compared to the pre-penicillin age. Late complications of syphilis and/or failures of treatment are uncommon, even in patients with concomitant HIV infection, indicating that the treatment schedules presently used seem adequate, although there remains a need for properly controlled studies;
  
• HIV co-infection with syphilis does not appear to increase the risk of developing a more aggressive course with (early) neurosyphilis, treatment failure or relapse.^{7,10,11,44,81} In early syphilis HIV-infection may be a risk factor for symptomatic early neurosyphilis (ocular and auricular syphilis and meningitis).^21,82 Therefore an HIV antibody test should always be recommended for all patients with syphilis.^62,83,84 HAART also appears to decrease the risk of early neurosyphilis in HIV-positive patients.²¹ Some specialists recommend routine CSF- examination in HIV-positive patients with late latent syphilis or latent syphilis of unknown duration to exclude asymptomatic neurosyphilis.
  

Recommended regimens
Early syphilis (primary, secondary and early latent).^{2,42,44,49,51–54,85,86}

First-line therapy options:

• Benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units IM (each buttock 1.2 million units – although some specialists recommend 2.4 U as a single injection) on Day 1;^{2,42,44,49,51–54,70} (Ib A) Replacing half of the solvent by lidocaine 1% solution may reduce the discomfort associated with the injection;
  
• Procaine penicillin 600,000 U IM daily for 10–14 days;^{2,51,52,56,73} (IIb B)
  

Penicillin allergy or parenteral treatment refused:

• Doxycycline 200 mg daily (either 100 mg twice daily or as a single 200 mg dose) oral for 14 days;^{2,49,50,61,62} (III B)
  
• Tetracycline 500 mg orally four times daily for 14 days;^2,49,50 (IIIB)
  
• Erythromycin 500 mg four times oral daily for 14 days;^49,50 (IV C)
  
• Azithromycin 2 g oral as a single dose⁷⁰ (IB) (see text for details of recommendation).
  

Note: Ceftriaxone 500 mg i.m. daily for 10 days is an option if parenteral treatment is not refused however there is significant cross-reaction between cephalosporins and penicillin and anaphylaxis for penicillin is an absolute contraindication to the use of Ceftriaxone^35,53(IB).

Late latent syphilis, cardiovascular and gummatous syphilis

First-line therapy options:

• Benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units IM (each buttock 1.2 million units or 2.4 million units as a single dose) weekly on Days 1, 8 and 15;^{2,44,49,52–54} (III B)
  Replacing half of the solvent by 1% lidocaine solution may reduce the discomfort associated with the injection;
  
• Procaine penicillin 600,000 units i.m. daily for 17–21 days;^{52–54,73,87} (III B)
  

Penicillin allergy or parenteral treatment refused:

Some specialists recommend penicillin desensitization as the evidence base for the use of non-penicillin regimens is relatively weak.^7,44,52

Alternative regimens include:

• Doxycycline 200 mg daily (either as 100 mg twice daily or a single 200 mg dose) for 21–28 days;^2,44,49,52 (IV C)
  
• Tetracycline 500 mg four times daily for 28 days;² (IV C)
  
• Erythromycin 500 mg four times daily for 28 days.⁴⁹ (IV C)
  

Symptomatic neurosyphilis (including ocular and auricular syphilis) and asymptomatic neurosyphilis

• Biological plausibility suggests that regimens that achieve treponemocidal levels of an antibiotic in the CSF should be the treatment of choice. Options are i.v. or i.m./combined with oral probenecid. Data comparing these two options are lacking;
  
• There are conflicting data over the effectiveness of producing treponemocidal CSF penicillin level using the procaine penicillin/probenecid combination.^50,87–89 Concern raised, that the CSF penicillin is increased at the expense of CNS tissue level, may not be relevant, because the levels in both CSF and CNS tissue are in fact higher with probenecid than without, with a significantly higher level in the CSF.⁴⁷ The experience in the UK with treatment of neurosyphilis with the procaine penicillin/probenecid combination has been positive so far. However the availability of probenecid may be a problem;
  
• In ocular syphilis (which can occur as a form of early neurosyphilis, a complication of early syphilis, but can also occur in late syphilis), especially in uveitis syphilitica of short duration, effective treatment can be achieved with parenteral Benzathine penicillin,^90,91 but generally i.v. therapy is preferred. Some studies suggest that patients with serious ocular involvement or ocular involvement of longer duration (with threat of permanent loss of vision) or ocular syphilis plus other signs of symptomatic (early) neurosyphilis (e.g. auricular syphilis or meningitis), should be treated with i.v. penicillin;
  
• CSF abnormalities are slower to normalize in HIV patients, particularly if the peripheral blood CD4 lymphocyte count is <200/µL.⁹²
  

First-line therapy:

• Benzyl penicillin 12–24 million units i.v. daily, as 3–4 million units every four hours during 18–21 days;^{2,44,49,51–54} (III B)
  
• Benzyl penicillin 0.15 million units/kg/day i.v., spread over six doses (every four hours) for 10–14 days;⁸⁹ (III B)
  
• Procaine penicillin 1.2–2.4 million units i.m. daily PLUS Probenecid 500 mg four times daily, both during 10–17 days.^2,50,52 (IIb B)
  

Penicillin allergy or parenteral treatment refused:

• Doxycycline 200 mg twice per day for 28 days.^52,61 (IV C)
  

Note: The evidence for the use of non-penicillin regimens in the treatment of neurosyphilis is relatively weak and some specialists recommend desensitization for all patients with neurosyphilis who have penicillin allergy.^7,44,52

Follow-up: repeat CSF examination should be undertaken 6–12 months after treatment of symptomatic neurosyphilis.^21,92

Special situations
Pregnancy

First-line options for treatment of early syphilis (acquired <1 year previously):

• Benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units i.m. as a single dose (1.2 million units in each buttock or 2.4 million units as a single dose;^9,93,94 (I B)
  

Note: Some specialists recommend two doses of Benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units (Day 1 and Day 8) for pregnant women with early syphilis because of altered pharmacokinetics during pregnancy (shortened drug half life) particularly in the last trimester^9,52 (III B).

• Procaine penicillin 600,000 – 1.2 million units i.m. daily during 10–14 days.^52,80 (III B)
  

Penicillin allergy:

• Desensitization to penicillin should be considered followed by first-line treatment.^2,44,52,95
  1. Erythromycin 500 mg qds for 14 days (evidence level IV C). As treatment failure has been recognized with this regimen consideration should be given to re-treating mothers with doxycycline after delivery;^71,73
     
  2. Ceftriaxone 500 mg i.m. for 10 days. There is a significant risk of cross-hypersensitivity with this agent and penicillin and patients with previous penicillin anaphylaxis should not receive Ceftriaxone.
     
  
  

Prevention of congenital syphilis by serological screening during pregnancy and preventive neonatal treatment:

• Recommendation: all pregnant women should be screened at first antenatal appointment for syphilis. Whether or not this should be repeated subsequently in pregnancy depends on the local epidemiology of syphilis within the population being screened. A number of different approaches to screening intervals have been adopted in other countries, and those of the USA and the Russian Federation are cited below;
  
• Serological screening is recommended in the USA at: (a) initial antenatal appointment; (b) 28 weeks of gestation; (c) delivery, if high risk for congenital syphilis.⁴⁴ In the Russian Federation it is recommended at: (a) initial antenatal appointment; (b) 21 weeks of gestation; (c) 36 weeks of gestation;³
  
• Each country should decide on its own screening policy, if possible based on a cost-effectiveness analysis;
  
• Although some specialists recommend that infants born to seropositive mothers should be treated with a single dose of Benzathine penicillin 50.000 U/kg i.m., whether or not the mother was treated during pregnancy,^2,44 there is evidence which suggests that this is probably not necessary.^93,94 This is probably especially true if treatment of the mother occurs before 28 weeks gestation;⁹
  
• The treatment of late syphilis in pregnancy. Women with late syphilis who are pregnant can be treated with penicillin-based regimens as for non-pregnant individuals (see above).
  

Congenital syphilis

A. Diagnosis
Confirmed congenital infection:

T. pallidum demonstrated by dark field microscopy or PCR, in placenta or autopsy material, exudates from suspicious lesions, or body fluids, e.g. nasal discharge.

Presumed congenital infection:^2,9,44,51,96

• A stillborn neonate with a positive treponemal test for syphilis;
  
• Children with a positive treponemal test for syphilis in combination with one of the following:
  1. persistent rhinitis, condylomata lata, osteitis, periostitis, osteochondritis, ascites, cutaneous and mucous membrane lesions, hepatitis, hepatosplenomegaly, glomerulonephritis, haemolytic anaemia;
     
  2. radiological abnormalities of the long bones suggestive of congenital syphilis;
     
  3. a positive RPR/VDRL test in the cerebrospinal fluid;
     
  4. a four-fold increase or more of the TPPA (TPHA) titre in the child's as opposed to the mother's serum (both obtained simultaneously at birth);
     
  5. a four-fold increase or more of the titre of a non-treponemal test in the child's as opposed to the mother's serum (both obtained simultaneously at birth);
     
  6. a four-fold increase or more of the titre of a non-treponemal or treponemal test within three months after birth;
     
  7. a positive anti-treponemal IgM EIA, 19S-IgM-FTA-abs test and/or IgM-immunoblot for T. pallidum in the child's serum;
     
  8. a mother, in whom syphilis was confirmed during pregnancy, but who was not adequately treated either before or during pregnancy.
     
  
  
• In a child >12 months of age with a positive treponemal serologic test for syphilis.
  

Late congenital syphilis including clinical presentation:

• Interstitial keratitis, Clutton's joints, Hutchinson's incisors, mulberry molars, high palatal arch, rhagades, deafness, frontal bossing, short maxilla, protuberance of mandible, saddle nose deformity, sterno-clavicular thickening, paroxysmal cold haemoglobinuria, neurological or gummatous involvement;
  
• Serological tests can be negative in infants infected in late pregnancy and should be repeated. When the mother is treated during the last trimester of pregnancy, the treatment can be inadequate for the child and the child may still develop congenital syphilis;
  
• All patients with congenital syphilis should be reported to the National Syphilis Surveillance system;
  
• Transmission of syphilis from mother to fetus is thought to be possible up to four years after acquisition of syphilis by the mother, if left untreated.
  

B. Investigations

• RPR/VDRL, TPPA (TPHA) (quantitative), anti-treponemal IgM EIA, treponemal IgM (19S-IgM FTA-abs test or IgM-immunoblot) – from infant's blood and not umbilical cord blood, because false-positive and -negative tests may result;
  
• Blood – full blood count, liver function, electrolytes;
  
• CSF – cells, protein, RPR/VDRL, TPHA/TPPA;
  
• X-rays long bones;
  
• Ophthalmic assessment as indicated.
  

C. Treatment options

• Benzyl penicillin 150,000 U/kg i.v. daily (administered in six doses every four hours) during 10–14 days (IV C);
  
• Procaine penicillin 50,000 U/kg i.m. daily x 10–14 days (IV C);
  
• If CSF is normal: Benzathine penicillin 50,000 U/kg i.m. (single dose) (IV C).
  

HIV-infected patients

A. General remarks

• Serological tests for syphilis in patients with HIV co-infection⁴⁴ are generally reliable for the diagnosis of syphilis and for evaluation of treatment response;
  
• Patients with HIV co-infection may have a slower rate of decline of VDRL/RPR after treatment and this should not be considered failure of response to treatment;^21,83
  
• False-negative and -positive tests and delayed appearance of seroreactivity have been reported;^42,49
  
• In HIV-infected individuals with clinical suspicion of syphilis and a negative treponemal screening test, it is advisable to perform supplementary treponemal tests and if these are also repeatedly negative then other diagnostic tests, e.g. PCR, histological or immunofluorescent examination of a biopsy from a clinically suspected lesion and direct darkfield microscopy or PCR of the exudates of early syphilitic lesions for spirochaetes;
  
• The evidence that HIV-infected patients with early syphilis may have an increased risk of (early) asymptomatic neurological involvement and higher rate of treatment failure with Benzathine penicillin compared with non-HIV-infected patients was confined to case reports,^42,49,52 but recent evidence suggests that that risk may be increased, although the evidence is still not conclusive. Careful follow-up for the development of symptomatic neurosyphilis is essential:^7,43,92
  
• Some specialists recommend CSF examination as part of the assessment of HIV-infected patients with late latent syphilis or latent syphilis of unknown duration (see ‘General remarks’ in ‘Management’);
  
• HIV-infection may be a risk factor for symptomatic early neurosyphilis, i.e., ocular and auricular syphilis and meningitis (see ‘Case finding’ and ‘Management, general remarks’:^21,82
  

B. Treatment of syphilis in patients with concomitant HIV infection

• Treatment should be given as for non-HIV-infected patients.
  

Note: Careful follow-up is essential (see above).

Reactions to treatment

Patients should be warned of possible reactions to treatment. Facilities for resuscitation should be made available in the treatment area.

A. Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction

• An acute febrile illness with headache, myalgia, chills and rigours, resolving within 24 hours;
  
• Common in early syphilis but is usually not important unless there is neurological or ophthalmic involvement or in pregnancy when it may cause fetal distress and premature labour;
  
• Uncommon in late syphilis but can potentially be life-threatening if involvement of strategic sites (e.g. coronary ostia, larynx, nervous system);
  
• Prednisolone can prevent the febrile episode.⁹⁷ Although steroids are unproven at ameliorating local infection, as there can be severe deterioration in early syphilis with optic neuritis and uveitis, steroids should be used as biological plausibility would suggest that it is likely to be useful (see below);
  
• Systemic treatment with a blocker of tumour necrosis factor may be more effective than systemic treatment with a corticosteroid;⁹⁸
  
• Management
  1. If cardiovascular or neurological involvement (including optic neuritis) exists, inpatient management is advisable;
     
  2. Prevention of Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction, prednisolone 20–60 mg daily for three days, starting anti-treponemal treatment after 24 hours after commencing prednisolone.⁹⁷ (IV C);
     
  3. Antipyretics.
     
  
  

B. Procaine reaction (procaine psychosis, procaine mania, Hoigné syndrome)

• Due to inadvertent i.v. injection of procaine penicillin which may be minimized by the ‘aspiration technique’ of injection;
  
• Characterized by fear of impending death, may cause hallucinations or fits immediately after injection. Lasts less than 20 min;
  
• Management
  1. Exclude anaphylaxis;
     
  2. Calm and verbal reassurance; restraint may be necessary;
     
  3. Diazepam 5–10 mg rectally/i.v./i.m. if convulsions.
     
  
  

C. Anaphylactic shock

• Facilities for treatment of anaphylaxis should be available as penicillin is one of the commonest causes;
  
• Management
  1. Epinephrine (Adrenaline) 1:1000 i.m. 0.5 mL then by...;
     
  2. i.m./i.v. antihistamine, e.g. chlorpheniramine 10 mg and;
     
  3. i.m./i.v. hydrocortisone 100 mg.
     
  
  

Management of partners

• All patients with syphilis should be seen for partner notification (notification by the patient: patient referral; by a health department: provider referral), health education and confirmation of any past treatment history;
  
• Clear information ideally in writing should be given to all individuals with syphilis and their sexual contacts;
  
• Although the division of latent syphilis in early and late stages has been useful for treatment and partner notification, this classification can be problematic for use in surveillance, as a substantial number of late, hypothetically non-infectious, latent syphilis cases (latent syphilis of unknown duration was classified as late latent) may be due to probable early, infectious, latent syphilis;⁴²
  
• Partner notification assists community efforts to reduce the disease burden, helps to identify asymptomatic patients with syphilis and can delineate the sexual risk networks hosting transmission. Partner notification programmes in outbreaks associated with a high rate of untraceable partners need to adopt innovative approaches to partner notification, including use of the internet and community outreach programmes;⁴²
  
• Sexual partners should include all those individuals who have had oral, vaginal or anal intercourse with infected individuals, whether or not barrier protection was used;
  
• For patients with primary syphilis, sexual partners within the past three months should be notified as the incubation period is up to 90 days. Partner notification may have to extend to two years for patients in secondary syphilis with clinical relapse or in early latent syphilis;
  
• 46–60% of contactable sexual partners, including pregnant women, of patients with early syphilis are likely to be infected;
  
• Immediate epidemiological treatment for sexual partners should be considered (especially of pregnant partners), unless partners are able to attend regularly for exclusion of syphilis through clinical and serological examination;
  
• Serological tests for syphilis should be performed at the first visit and repeated at six weeks and three months;
  
• Notification of syphilis to the relevant authority is required in many European countries, particularly early syphilis and congenital syphilis.
  

Follow-up
The follow-up to ascertain cure and detect reinfection or relapse is achieved by assessing clinical and serological response to treatment.⁶

• Early syphilis, minimum clinical and serological assessment (VDRL/RPR): monthly during the first three months after treatment, then at six and 12 months. Follow-up of HIV-infected patients treated for early syphilis should be more frequent, e.g. at one, two, three, six, nine, 12 and 24 months;^44,51
  1. After treatment of early syphilis, the titre of non-treponemal tests (e.g. VDRL and/or RPR) should decline by two dilution steps (four-fold) within six months (within 12 months for HIV-positive patients).⁶ However, about 15% or more of primary and secondary syphilis HIV-negative patients do not have a fourfold decrease of the RPR test titre at six months, the significance of which (in asymptomatic patients) is unknown;^85,99
     
  2. If a four-fold decline of the titre of a non-treponemal test does not occur after 6–12 months, some experts recommend additional treatment (according to the CDC:⁴⁴ Benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units i.m. on Days 1, 8 and 15). If the clinical response has been adequate, one might decide against additional treatment. If the clinical response was inadequate or impossible to monitor as in latent syphilis, one might decide in favour of additional treatment;
     
  
  
• In late (latent) syphilis, the serological response of non-treponemal tests is often absent. In non-HIV-infected late latent syphilis patients with a reactive non-treponemal test, which remains stable after adequate therapy (serofast between two tests taken three months apart), follow-up after treatment is generally not indicated;⁶
  
• An increase of two or more dilution steps (four-fold) in a non-treponemal test confirmed on a second specimen suggests reinfection or reactivation;⁶
  
• Follow-up examination of CSF should be performed 6–12 months after treatment of neurosyphilis;
  
• Specific treponemal tests may remain positive for life following effective treatment; proper documentation is necessary to prevent unnecessary retreatment;
  
• Reinfection or relapse should be retreated preferably with supervised treatment schedules to ensure compliance and sexual partners should be rescreened.
  

The guideline group conducted a literature review, which included searching Medline for the years 1990–2008 and using the keywords ‘syphilis’ and ‘syphilis and HIV’ plus additional MeSH headings ‘neurosyphilis’, ‘cardiovascular syphilis’, ‘latent syphilis’ and ‘syphilis and treatment’. Only English language papers were searched. The guideline revision was also based on the conclusions of a IUSTI/WHO workshop of 2004.^4–9 A review of older references were identified by examining key overviews of syphilis.^{42,49,54,55,100} and a review of syphilis treatment that specifically focused on syphilis management in Europe.⁵³

	APPENDIX

Top INTRODUCTION CASE FINDING DIAGNOSIS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX REFERENCES

 
IUSTI/WHO European STD Guidelines Editorial Board.

Dr Keith Radcliffe (Editor-in-Chief), Dr Michel Janier, Dr Jorgen Skov Jensen, Prof. Harald Moi, Dr Raj Patel, Prof Jonathan Ross, Dr Willem van der Meijden, Dr Pieter van Voorst Vader, Prof Martino Neumann Dr Marita van de Laar – ECDC representative, Dr James Bingham Dr Lali Khotenashvili.

The Syphilis Guideline Revision Group.

Dr Patrick French (Chair), Camden Primary Care Trust and University College London, The Mortimer Market Centre, Mortimer Market, London WC1E 6JB, UK; Professor Mikhail Gomberg, Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry, Moscow 103473, Russia; Dr Michel Janier, Centre Clinique des M.S.T., Hopital Saint-Louis, 1 Avenue Claude Vellefaux, 75475 Paris, Cedex 10, France; Dr Bruno L Schmidt, Serodiagnostiche Station, Krankenhaus der Stadt Wien – Hietzing, Mit Neurologischem Zentrum Rosenhugel, Wokersbergenstrasse 1, A1130 Wien, Austria; Dr Pieter C van Voorst Vader, Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Groningen, PO Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands; Dr Hugh Young, The Scottish Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Reference Laboratory, Microbiology, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, 51 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Syphilis treatment: treatment summary with levels of evidence and grading of recommendations

 
LEVELS OF EVIDENCE AND GRADING OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Levels of evidence

• Ia – Evidence obtained from meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials;
  
• Ib – Evidence obtained from at least one randomized controlled trial;
  
• IIa – Evidence obtained from at least one well-designed study without randomization;
  
• IIb – Evidence obtained from at least one other type of well-designed quasi-experimental study;
  
• III – Evidence obtained from well-designed non-experimental descriptive studies such as comparative studies, correlation studies and case-control studies;
  
• IV – Evidence obtained from expert committee reports or opinions and/or clinical experience of respected authorities.
  

Grading of recommendations

A (Evidence levels Ia, Ib)Requires at least one randomized control trial as part of the body of literature of overall good quality and consistency addressing the specific recommendation.

B (Evidence levels IIa, IIb, III)Requires availability of well-conducted clinical studies but no randomized clinical trials on the topic of recommendation.

C (Evidence IV)Requires evidence from expert committee reports or opinions and/or clinical experience of respected authorities. Indicates absence of directly applicable studies of good quality

.

(Accepted December 24, 2008)

	REFERENCES

Top INTRODUCTION CASE FINDING DIAGNOSIS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX REFERENCES

 

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